Exploring graphdiyne, MXene, borophene, and phosphorene as advanced 2D materials for next-generation metallic ion batteries

Abstract

Metallic ion batteries such as lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), potassiumion batteries (KIBs), and magnesium-ion batteries (MIBs) have gained increasing attention as alternatives to conventional lithium-based energy storage technologies. Advanced twodimensional (2D) materials, including graphdiyne (GDY), transition metal carbides/nitrides (MXenes), borophene, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and phosphorene, offer considerable promise as next-generation anode materials due to their unique physicochemical features. These materials exhibit large surface areas, abundant active sites, tunable porosity, and variable electronic structures, enabling improved ion storage, enhanced conductivity, and structural stability during cycling. Graphdiyne provides high theoretical capacities and favorable diffusion kinetics. MXenes deliver metallic conductivity and functionalized surface terminations that support rapid charge transport. Borophene offers exceptional charge carrier mobility but remains experimentally constrained due to instability. MOF-derived materials contribute redox-active centers and ion-accessible channels, while phosphorene provides high theoretical capacity and fast ion diffusion but suffers from environmental sensitivity. This review highlights recent advances in the structural design, heteroatom doping, and composite engineering of these materials for enhanced performance. Additionally, it outlines the persistent challenges related to interface degradation, structural collapse, and synthesis scalability, while suggesting future directions including in situ/ operando characterization and machine learning-guided material discovery for the development of stable, high-capacity metallic ion batteries.